Current Research.

I am currently engaged in a number of projects that seek to better understand and reduce family and gender inequality, with a particular emphasis on how work arrangements, cultural norms and events, and family dynamics both contribute to, and help to reduce, gender inequality. These projects focus on parental leave, work-family dynamics more generally, cultural norms surrounding fatherhood and motherhood, and how parents' divisions of labor has changed due to the COVID-19 pandemic. 

Study on U.S. Parents' Divisions of Labor during COVID-19

This project seeks to understand how the COVID-19 pandemic has changed the ways in which parents divide domestic labor, as well as what consequences these changes have for families. This is a collaborative project with Daniel L. Carlson (University of Utah). We originally collected survey data from partnered parents in April 2020 and asked them about their experiences both before and during the pandemic. We have since collected four additional waves of data in November 2020, October 2021, October 2022, and October 2023. Waves 2-5 each consisted of follow-up surveys administered to previous panelists as well as cross-sectional surveys of new groups of parents. This study will continue through 2024, resulting in a total of 6 waves of data spanning the period from March 2020 - October 2024. Details about data for this project and studies published using these data can be found below.

Data Availability
With generous support from the National Science Foundation (Grant Nos. 2148610 and 2148501), each wave of data from the Study on U.S. Parents' Divisions of Labor during COVID-19 (SPDLC) will be publicly available two years after it is collected. The first four waves of data from SPDLC are now available, and can be accessed using the links below:
Symposium: The Future of Gender Equality Three Years into the Pandemic
On March 8, 2023, we presented new findings on changes in parents' divisions of labor through the first three years of the pandemic and used this information to identify recommendations on policies and practices that can help to advance gender equality in the future. This symposium was hosted by New America, The Better Life Lab, and the Council on Contemporary Families, and also featured a fireside chat with US Representative Ro Khanna (D-CA) and Brigid Schulte, and a panel discussion focusing on the role of organizations in facilitating greater gender equality (led by Vicki Shabo). 
Publications
  • Trajectories of US Parents' Divisions of Domestic Labor Throughout the COVID-19 Pandemic.  This study (published in Demographic Research) uses SPDLC data from Waves 1-5 to identify distinct patterns of change in US parents' divisions of housework and childcare from spring 2020 to fall 2023 and factors associated with changes in parents' divisions of domestic labor. Findings show that most US parents (75-80%) maintained the same division of domestic labor throughout the pandemic. Nontheless, one-quarter experienced long-term changes. Parents were equally as likely to transition to a nontraditional division of housework as to a traditional one (10%) but were four times more likely to transition to a nontraditional division of childcare than to a traditional division (21% vs. 5%). Parents were more likely to shift toward a nontraditional division of domestic labor when mothers worked full-time (and earned more income) and fathers worked from home at least sometimes during the pandemic. Overall, results suggest that the COVID-19 pandemic affected the long-term division of domestic labor in only a minority of families. Where change has occurred, however, it has been long-lasting, and in the case of childcare, has tended to reduce gender inequalities rather than exacerbate them.
  • Trajectories of U.S. Parents' Remote Work During the COVID-19 Pandemic.  This data visualization (published in Socius) uses SPDLC data from Waves 1-5 and group-based trajectory models to illustrate varying patterns of remote work for working partnered parents in the U.S. Results reveal the heterogeneity in parents' experiences with remote work throughout the pandemic, revealing important nuances not previously identified in tracking polls. Results also illustrate important gender differences that likely had implications for mothers' and fathers' well-being and gender equality during the pandemic and beyond. 
  • Remote Work, Gender Ideologies, and Fathers’ Participation in Childcare during the COVID-19 Pandemic.  This study (published in Social Sciences) uses SPDLC data from Wave 1 to examine how gender ideology moderates the association between fathers’ remote work and their performance and share of childcare during the early days of the COVID-19 pandemic in both sole-earner and dual-earner families. Findings show that for sole-earning fathers and dual-earner fathers with egalitarian gender attitudes, the frequency of remote work was positively associated with fathers performing more, and a greater share of, childcare during the pandemic. Yet, only dual-earner fathers with egalitarian gender attitudes performed an equal share of childcare in their families. These findings suggest that the pandemic provided structural opportunities for fathers, particularly egalitarian-minded fathers, to be the equally engaged parents they desired.
    ​Managing a Household During a Pandemic: Cognitive Labor and Parents' Psychological Well-Being.  This study (published in Society and Mental Health) uses SPDLC data from Fall 2020 to consider how cognitive labor - planning, organizing, and monitoring family needs - contributed to gendered health disparities during the pandemic. Findings show that mothers performed more cognitive labor during the pandemic than fathers, and cognitive labor was negatively associated with mothers’ psychological well-being – particularly for mothers who never or exclusively telecommuted. Mothers’ psychological well-being was higher when fathers did more cognitive labor, especially among mothers who worked outside the home. Overall, cognitive labor appears to be another stressor that contributed to increased gender inequality. Additional information can be found in our briefing paper (Council on Contemporary Families), listening to the November 2023 American Sociological Assocation podcast, or by accessing the full-text version.
  • Between a Rock and a Hard Place: COVID Concerns and Partnered U.S. Mothers' Employment during the COVID-19 Pandemic.  This study (published in Socius) uses SPDLC data from Fall 2020 to assess how mothers' COVID concerns shaped their labor force participation. Findings show that mothers' COVID concerns were associated with reduced labor force participation due to children's time at home, perceived stress, and remote work. Concerned mothers were more likely to keep children home, but this resulted in less paid work likely due to greater work-family conflicts. The findings illuminate one reason mothers' paid labor force participation failed to rebound in 2020 despite increased access to in-person school and childcare. Additional information can be found in our briefing paper (Council on Contemporary Families).
  • U.S. Parents' Domestic Labor Over the First Year of the COVID-19 Pandemic.  This study (published in Population Research and Policy Review; free version available on PubMed) uses longitudinal data over the first year of the pandemic to assess changes in parents' division of domestic labor. We find that partnered parents' divisions of housework and childcare reverted back toward more traditional arrangements by the end of 2020. Changes in parents’ divisions of domestic labor were largely driven by changes in parents’ labor force conditions, and especially by fathers’ labor force conditions. Decreases in fathers’ labor force participation and increases in telecommuting in April 2020 portended increases in partnered fathers’ shares of domestic tasks. As fathers increased time in paid work and returned to in-person work by fall, their shares of domestic labor fell. Overall, results suggest that promoting full-time employment among mothers and greater time at home for fathers are key in facilitating a more equal division of domestic labor within families post-pandemic.​
  • Changes in Parents' Domestic Labor During the COVID-19 Pandemic. This descriptive study (published in Sociological Inquiry; preprint available on SocArXiv) illustrates how parents' divisions of housework and childcare changed in the early months of the pandemic. Evidence shows that the shock of the pandemic both exacerbated and reduced gender inequality in domestic labor. Additional information can be found in our research brief (Council on Contemporary Families), and media coverage of the paper can be found at: NBC 10 Boston, WWJ Newsradio (Detroit), ​Associated Press, ​and Wall Street Journal.
  • ​​A Gendered Pandemic: Childcare, Homeschooling, and Parents' Employment During COVID-19. This study (published in Gender, Work & Organization; preprint available on SocArXiv) examines factors that explain employment changes for mothers and fathers in the early months of the pandemic. We find that the loss of non-parental childcare and homeschooling requirements increased the risk of unemployment and reduced work hours among mothers. However, father involvement in childcare before the pandemic also buffered against negative employment outcomes for mothers. Additional information can be found in our article in Harvard Business Review.
  • Fathers Stepping Up? A Cross-National Comparison of Fathers' Domestic Labour and Parents' Satisfaction with the Division of Domestic Labour During the COVID-19 Pandemic. This study (published in Journal of Family Studies) uses SPDLC data from Spring 2020 along with harmonized data from Canada, UK, and the Netherlands to consider cross-national changes in fathers' shares of domestic labor early in the pandemic and whether these changes are associated with mothers' satisfaction with the division of labor. Results indicate that fathers' shares of housework and childcare increased early in the pandemic in all four countries, with fathers' increased shares of housework being particularly pronounced in the US. Results also show an association between fathers' increased shares of domestic labor and mothers' increased satisfaction with the division of domestic labor in the US, Canada, and the UK.   

Parental Leave Policies

 SThis project that focuses on assessing what types of parental leave policies lead to more favorable views of parental leave-taking. In order for parental leave policies to be effective and beneficial, there needs to be good policies in place but the broader culture also needs to be accepting and supportive of individuals who take leave. This project uses an experimental design to assess how various aspects of parental leave policies may affect cultural perceptions of leave-taking. Identifying what types of policies lead to more favorable views of those who take leave can help policymakers to design parental leave policies that will facilitate both greater utilization and cultural acceptance of leave-taking. This is a collaborative project with Trenton D. Mize (Purdue University) and Gayle Kaufman (Davidson College). To date, we have conducted two survey experiments approximately one year apart (2019 and 2020) and have multiple publications from this project. We also obtained funding in 2023 from the Russell Sage Foundation to conduct a third survey experiment to assess variations in perceptions of parental leave-taking among workers who are single (vs. partnered) parents and those in same gender (vs. different gender) partnerships.

Does Taking Parental Leave Make You a More Likeable Worker? Evidence from a Survey Experiment
Research on perceptions of workers who take paid parental leave largely focuses on the negative consequences associated with leave-taking. However, given widespread support for paid parental leave within the U.S., it is possible that workers may also be viewed positively on certain dimensions for taking parental leave. Using a novel survey experiment that includes vignettes of workers who consider taking paid parental leave (N = 1,625), we consider whether paid parental leave-taking affects the perceived likeability of workers and whether this relationship varies between mothers and fathers. Results show that both mothers and fathers who take longer parental leaves are seen as more likeable, although the effects are linear for mothers (mothers are consistently seen as more likeable when they take longer leaves) and nonlinear for fathers (fathers are seen as most likeable when they take moderate amounts of leave and are penalized at long lengths of leave). We also find that gendered perceptions of leave-taking workers (as more communal and more feminine) explain part of the effect of paid leave-taking on perceived likeability. Overall, results from this study illustrate one positive perception of workers who take paid parental leave, enhancing our understanding of the benefits of paid parental leave for workers.
Gender Egalitarianism and Attitudes Toward Parental Leave
This paper examines the relationship between gender ideology and attitudes toward parental leave. We use data from two original survey experiments with a total analytic sample of 3332 respondents. Using an experimental design where participants evaluate a new parent’s decision about taking parental leave in light of the employer’s leave policies, and answer attitudinal questions about leave and gender ideology, we assess the associations between gender ideology and (a) desired weeks of parental leave for mothers and fathers, as well as (b) perceptions of whether the new parent described in the experiment took too little or too much leave. We find that participants think fathers should receive 10.5 weeks of paid paternity leave, whereas mothers should receive 16 weeks of paid maternity leave. In general, those with egalitarian gender ideals support longer paternity leave and more equal periods of leave for mothers and fathers—and are more likely to think that men workers take too little leave. However, those who support mothers as financial providers are more likely to think that women workers take too much leave, demonstrating the complexities between dimensions of gender ideology, the gender of the parent taking leave, and views of parental leave. Click for full-text version

Parental Leave-Taking and Perceptions of Workers as Good Parents
Objective: This study examines whether parental leave-taking affects perceptions of workers as good parents, and whether this relationship varies between mothers and fathers.
Background: Contemporary parenthood norms promote intensive parenting, but pressures to engage in intensive parenting are more pronounced for mothers than fathers. Paid parental leave policies have the potential to improve gender equality, but only if such policies help to change gendered parenting norms. We assess whether leave-taking further entrenches gendered parenting norms within workplaces or promotes greater perceptions of good parenting among fathers.
Method: We use combined data on 3333 respondents from two survey experiments in which parental leave-taking and parental gender were randomly assigned. This enables us to assess the causal effects of parental leave-taking on perceptions of mothers and fathers as good parents.
Results: Mothers and fathers in married, different-sex partnerships are more likely to be viewed as good parents when they take longer periods of leave. Also, the positive effects of leave-taking on perceptions of workers as good parents are stronger for fathers than for mothers—but only for short amounts of leave taken.
Conclusion: Greater access to, and use of, paid parental leave may enable more parents to be perceived as fulfilling contemporary parenting norms, and may especially increase the likelihood that fathers are viewed as good parents. As such, these policies may help to change gendered perceptions of parenting and promote greater gender equality.

Organizational Policies, Workplace Culture, and Perceived Job Commitment of Mothers and Fathers Who Take Parental Leave​
Americans do not always fully utilize available parental leave policies due (in part) to fear of a commitment penalty – where taking leave (or taking longer periods of leave) lowers perceptions of job commitment. Using a survey experiment (N = 1713) to identify whether organizational leave policies affect perceived job commitment, we find that leave-taking (and taking longer periods of leave) is negatively associated with perceived commitment. However, perceived commitment is higher when workers take leave under more favorable policies, and the effect of favorable policies on perceived commitment is greater for fathers than mothers. Overall, these results can help organizations design parental leave policies that increase the likelihood that workers can take needed leave without damaging their careers.
As an offshoot of the the main focus on understanding the impact of parental leave policies, this unique design enabled us to consider the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on gender attitudes. 
  • Visualizing Shifts in Gendered Parenting Attitudes during COVID-19
    • ​Many scholars have expressed fears that the 2019 coronavirus pandemic may exacerbate gender inequalities. Indeed, studies have suggested that women, and mothers in particular, have been particularly affected by reducing their participation in the paid labor market to meet increased caregiving needs. What is less clear is whether the pandemic has also shifted attitudes about mothers’ and fathers’ roles. We collected data on gendered parenting attitudes both before and during the pandemic and report shifts in attitudes in this data visualization. Consistent with fears of exacerbated gender inequality, we find a shift toward more conventional gender parenting attitudes. We also find an increase in the importance placed on mothers’ and fathers’ earning money and a decrease in the role mothers and fathers play in child development, both of which may be due to the pandemic’s effects on the economy and schooling.
Familydemic is a collaborative international project and a network of researchers from Canada, Germany, Italy, Poland, Sweden, and the United States. Its goal is to advance the theoretical explanations, methods and empirical foundations for studying the diverse immediate and long-term consequences of policy responses to the COVID-19 outbreak for the distribution of paid and unpaid work in couples and their labor market and family outcomes in diverse welfare regime contexts. Surveys were conducted in each of the 6 countries and harmonized to create a unique, cross-cultural dataset on paid and unpaid labor, work-family balance, well-being, fertility intensions and particularly on how policy responses across country contexts help to shape these outcomes during the pandemic. More information about this project can be found on the familydemic website.

A description of the project and details about a publicly available dataset associated with the project can be found below.
  • Familydemic Cross Country and Gender Dataset on work and family outcomes during COVID-19 pandemic
    • ​​Here we present the Familydemic Cross Country and Gender Dataset (FCCGD), which offers cross country and gender comparative data on work and family outcomes among parents of dependent children, before and during the COVID-19 pandemic. It covers six countries from two continents representing diverse welfare regimes as well as distinct policy reactions to the pandemic outbreak. The FCCGD was created using the first wave of a web-based international survey (Familydemic) carried out between June and September 2021, on large samples of parents (aged 20–59) living with at least one child under 12 in Canada, Germany, Italy, Poland, Sweden, and the US. While individual datasets are not available due to country-level restriction policies, the presented database allows for cross-country comparison of a wide range of employment outcomes and work arrangements, the division of diverse tasks of unpaid labour (housework and childcare) in couples, experiences with childcare and school closures due to the pandemic and subjective assessments of changes to work-life balance, career prospects and the financial situation of families (234 variables).
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